The central government of Russia exerts complete control over the autonomous republics to counteract devolutionary pressures.

The autonomous republics are able to function independently from the central government because of an abundance of natural resources.

Russia is a multistate nation characterized by contested regional boundaries.

The autonomous republics provide ethnic groups with some political control over their homelands while preserving Russia’s territorial integrity.

Russia is a unitary state characterized by many ethnic groups united within a single country.

French language and culture act as a centripetal force throughout Canada as the majority of Canadians have English as a first language and the government uses both languages in official communications.

As an expression of political power, the Canadian federal government restricts the French language and culture from media and government proceedings.

French language and culture act as centripetal forces and unify all of Canada’s people and government into a single nation.

French language and culture act as a centrifugal force in Canada because independence movements in Quebec have attempted to secede the province from Canada.

Because French Canadians are spread across the country’s provinces, the Canadian government implemented federal laws to create a common culture and language for all Canadians.

Korea and Vietnam were politically controlled by regional powers.

Korea and Vietnam kept two political adversaries geographically separated.

Korea and Vietnam fragmented into new states due to internal tensions.

Korea and Vietnam tried to control land and sea areas around their states.

Korea and Vietnam experienced conflict due to a dispute between global powers.

Antecedent, based on tribal cultural boundaries that existed before European colonization

Subsequent, with smaller buffer states placed between larger states to prevent political conflicts

Consequent, accounting for local differences in language and religion during European colonization

Natural, with irregular lines, accounting for regional physical features such as mountains or water bodies

Geometric, with straight lines, disregarding physical features or tribal cultural differences of the areas

an open border

a demilitarized zone

a relict boundary

an antecedent boundary

a geometric boundary

The Berlin Wall between East and West Germany no longer exists, but the location is still evident.

European powers divided Africa at the Berlin Conference and drew boundaries across the continent.

The United States–Canadian boundary was set at the 49th parallel by a treaty before the area was settled.

Canada created the province of Nunavut to provide greater autonomy for the First Nations.

The Andes Mountains are used as a political boundary to divide Chile and Argentina.

The geometric boundary between the United States and Canada

The border of the European Union

The Pyrenees Mountains between France and Spain

The geometric boundary between Iraq and Saudi Arabia

The Great Wall of China

Centripetal forces may cause uneven development at the local scale but not at the national scale.

Centripetal forces at both the local scale and the national scale may lead to increased cultural cohesion.

Centripetal forces may lead to stateless nations at the national scale but not the local scale.

Centripetal forces may result in nationalism at the local scale but not at the national scale.

Centripetal forces at both the local scale and the national scale may lead to failed states.

A centralized government and strong centripetal forces

A fragmented land area and a single ethnic group

A small land area and high population density

A compact shape and a primate city

A large land area and multiple ethnic groups

A centralized government creates a barrier to local participation in the political process.

Autonomous regions act outside the authority of a central government.

Federal states encourage devolutionary movements and break apart quickly.

Laws are enacted in a single language to promote cultural unity.

Multiple substrates have local control and are unified to pursue common goals at the national level.

Stronger states and transnational corporations indirectly control weaker states.

A state has a strong central government with no power given to regions.

A collection of independent communities shares government services.

A state’s more powerful central government shares power with its regions.

A sense of unity, often derived from ethnic or cultural traits, binds a country together.

There is an economic aspect to the Quebecois independence movement, while the Catalans focus mainly on culture.

Both independence movements utilize cultural distinctiveness as their only reason for seeking independence.

Both independence movements focus on religious differences with the nations they currently belong to.

There is an economic aspect to the Catalan independence movement, while the Quebecois focus mainly on cultural differences.

Both independence movements utilize economic power as their main reason for seeking independence.

Both global communication technology and state-controlled media act as centripetal forces that present a common message, which is utilized by the government to bind citizens together.

Neither global communications technology nor state-controlled media have any impact on the viability of a state when it comes to centripetal or centrifugal forces.

Global communications technology is utilized as a centripetal force to present a common message, whereas state-controlled media may bring in new ideas that act as centrifugal forces.

Both global communications technology and state-controlled media act as centrifugal forces because they give citizens access to concepts or ideas that may inspire dissent.

Global communications technology may bring in new ideas that act as centrifugal forces, whereas state-controlled media is utilized as a centripetal force to present a common message.

It created centrifugal forces at both local and national scales.

It created centrifugal forces at the local scale but not the national scale.

It created centrifugal forces locally and centripetal forces nationally.

It created centripetal forces at the national scale but not the local scale.

It created centripetal forces at both local and national scales.

A natural disaster such as an earthquake or tsunami occurring within the country

A member of the state’s minority political party being elected to lead the country

Admittance into a supranational organization such as the European Union

Decommitment to environmental resolutions established by the United Nations

A shift from a federal system to a unitary system of governance within the state